The Folktale
Stith Thompson
Respite from death granted until particular act is performed. *Type 122A; U.S.: Baughman; West Indies: Flowers 515. |
II - The Complex Tale 2. Supernatural Adversaries C. Devils and Demons |
The people who tell folktales are not always clear in their conception of the supernatural creatures whom their heroes must meet in combat. In the stories of the return from the dead which have just been considered, the gruesome opponent is certainly no mere spectre, but has enough solidity to be dangerous and often unconquerable in combat. But just what these vampires or wandering dead men look like is never clearly stated. The same situation is found in tales about the devil. Three or four different concepts seem to be thoroughly confused when the term "devil" is used by the teller of tales. In Germany and Scandinavian countries, it frequently means nothing more than the vague word "ogre." Thus when they speak of the "stupid devil" they may equally well say "the stupid ogre" or "the stupid giant." Again the term "devil" is frequently equivalent to the Oriental "demon," or even the "djinn" of the Arabian Nights. The English usage is likely to be somewhat narrower than those just suggested. "Devil" is likely to have some connection with Satan, the devil of Christian theology, and to have the outward appearances made familiar by long centuries of medieval writers and artists. Indispensable as part of his equipment are his cloven hoofs, his tail, and usually his pointed ears—the whole possibly a reminiscence of Pan and the satyrs of old Greek legend. [26] Except when conceived of as an ogre, the devil does not usually engage his opponent in open combat. The power which he exerts is normally super-natural. Most "devil" stories consist of a single incident. Such, for example, is The [p. 43] Snares of the Evil One ( Entirely confined to the Baltic states are two other simple tales of adventures with the devil. In one of these he takes service as a mower and works under an evil overseer. The devil has a magic sickle and mows so fast that when the overseer tries to keep up with him he dies of exhaustion ( Though most of these stories of the devil as an adversary are short and simple, they are not always so. The Devil's Riddle ( Certain of the details of this story appear elsewhere. The contract in which the hero, like Faust, promises himself to the devil forms the introduction to several other well-known complex tales. [27] Besides these there is to be found a considerable number of short anecdotes, consisting of only a single motif, in which the man who sells his soul to the devil saves it by deceit, usually [p. 44] by imposing some impossible task ( Among the impossible tasks assigned the devil in stories of this kind are catching rabbits in nets set out in high trees ( Three other deceptive bargains are The Level Bushel, The Last Leaf, and The First Crop ( Frequently the escape from the devil takes place at the last minute. The hero asks for a delay while he repeats a prayer for the last time ( Most of these short anecdotes about escape from the devil belong primarily to the oral tradition, but the tale of The Devil and the Advocate ( The tales about the devil thus far mentioned have assumed that the devil [p. 45] was wandering about upon the face of the earth. We shall find several stories, treated later in other connections, in which the devil is found in hell. [29] One short anecdote of this kind tells how the devil is deceived into putting on "the chains of Solomon." He is thus bound and must stay in hell. [30] We shall find the devil in two other connections. As mentioned once before, he is sometimes conceived of as a stupid ogre, [31] as in some of the tales we have already met. Sometimes, however, the devil is by no means stupid and turns out to be a very valuable ally and helper of the hero. In such stories [32] the devil's cleverness is emphasized and not, as in the tales we have just discussed, his malevolence or stupidity. |
[26] For literature on the subject of the devil, see [27] See [28] For a discussion of this motif in its many varieties, see [29] See pp. 66, 131, and 252, below. [30] [31] See p. 35, above. [32] See p. 66, below. |
Types: 330, 360, 756B, 803, 810, 812, 815, 820, 1170, 1170-1199, 1171, 1171-1180, 1181, 1182, 1184, 1185, 1186, 1199 |
Motifs G303, K551, M211 |
II - The Complex Tale 2. Supernatural Adversaries D. Death in Person |
In his malevolent character, the devil is sometimes thought of as the equivalent of Death, or even its personification. This confusion is particularly apparent in the tale generally known as The Smith and the Devil or The Smith and Death ( This story has been told in so many forms, both literary and oral, that a clear history of it would be very difficult to trace. Motifs are added or omitted with the greatest freedom, though a central core serves to maintain its identity. The following generalized statement of the tale contains most of the incidents which occur with any frequency. The smith has made a contract with the devil that in return for becoming a master-smith he is to belong to the devil after a certain time. In some way, occasionally from the Lord or Saint Peter, who is wandering on the earth, he receives three objects: a tree and a bench that cause people to stick to them, and a knapsack that draws persons into it. In the course of his adventures he causes the devil (or Death) to stick to the tree or the bench. Sometimes Death is put in the knapsack and pounded on the anvil until he gives up his claim on the smith. At last the smith goes to hell, but he is not admitted, since the devil has lost power over him. He therefore goes to heaven, but he is unknown there and is refused admittance. But he gets permission to throw his knapsack inside and the knapsack pulls him after it. Though the versions are confused and the motifs freely interchanged, there is a tendency for the adventures with the Lord and Saint Peter to appear in connection with Death sticking to the tree ( The idea of Death sticking to the tree or to a stool can be traced back to antiquity, where it is found in both Greek and Hebrew originals. The story with most of the motifs mentioned above appeared in literary form in Italian as early as 1525 and became the subject of a very popular French chapbook, "Histoire nouvelle et divertissante du bonhomme Misère, par le sieur de La Rivière" (Rouen, 1719). This was often reprinted and has been the basis of many literary treatments. The most striking part of the story, Death on the Tree, was recently used as the central motif of the cinema production "On Borrowed Time." [33] The story has had considerable popularity as an oral tale, whether or not the tradition may eventually go back to a written form. It is known literally all over Europe and as far east as the Caucasus and Palestine. It is found in Iceland, Scotland, Spain, and Italy, but its greatest popularity is in central and northern Europe—Germany, Lithuania, Estonia, and Finland. At least 25 versions are found in Russia. An adequate study of the history of this tale remains to be made. Even a superficial glance at the material indicates that such a study, while extremely exacting on the scholar who undertakes it, would show many interesting results. Such problems as the looseness or stability of a folktale type, and the mutual relations of written and oral versions would be ever present. One problem, however, the scholar would escape: the story does not seem to have been carried and transplanted into remote parts of the earth. Also the subject of frequent literary handlings from at least as early as the year 1300 is the story of Godfather Death ( While we are discussing stories concerning Death mention should be made of a literary tale, "Death's Messengers" ( Finally, before leaving those stories which concern supernatural adversaries, there remains the tale of The Spirit in the Bottle ( What kind of spirit is meant in this tale of the bottle is never clearly defined. He is apparently a demon of some kind, but is seldom or never to be identified with the devil. This indeterminate quality has been observed also in many of the other stories of supernatural adversaries which we have now considered. In the next group of tales, where we shall encounter a group of extraordinary helpers, a similar confusion in the exact nature of the helpers will be observed. |
[33] For a discussion of the literary forms of this tale, see Bolte-Polívka, II, 186ff. [34] We have already seen this motif ( [35] This tale has been studied by R. Th. Christiansen in Danske Studier (1915), pp. 72-78. His study is based upon 124 variants. [36] For these, see Bolte-Polívka, I, 382. |
Types: 312, 330, 330A, 330B, 331, 332, 335, 753 |
Motifs K551 |