Part Two

The Folktale from Ireland to India

II – The Complex Tale

3. Supernatural helpers

B. Helpful Dwarfs or Fairies

In spite of the fact that in English we are likely to speak of all tales of wonder as fairy tales, the truth is that fairies appear rarely in such stories. Occasionally in some literary reworking of a tale, one hears of a fairy god-mother, but most accounts of fairies appear as legends or traditions. In one well-known tale, however (Type 503), the central incident does concern fairies. Sometimes they are spoken of as "the little folk" and sometimes they are called dwarfs. A hunchback comes across the fairies as they are dancing. He gains their favor by joining in their dance or by making music for them. Sometimes in their song they are trying to name the days of the week, but can never get beyond a certain point : he supplies the names of the missing days. Sometimes he submits peacefully while they cut his hair or shave him. The fairies reward him by taking off his hump and sometimes by giving him gold. He has an avaricious companion who thinks he will imitate the hero's good fortune. But the angry fairies give him the hump they have taken from the other, and where he had expected to get gold they give him some worthless coals.

In much its present form, this tale appeared in the 17th century in the literature of both Italy and Ireland. Earlier there had been an Arabic literary story dating from the 14th century in which a demon (afrit) removes the hump and puts it on the second man. [40] Within a relatively small area the story is very popular in folk tradition. In France it is one of the most frequently told of all folktales, and it is well known in Ireland, Belgium, Italy, and Germany. It does not, however, seem to have reached Scandinavia, the Baltic states, or Russia except sporadically. In spite of the assiduous collection in Lithuania and Finland, where most folktales are reported by the scores, there appear only five versions for Lithuania and none for Finland. By some accident of long-distance transmission, the story appears with fair faithfulness in a Japanese collection. Otherwise it seems to be confined to western Europe. The relations of the oral and the literary forms should make an [p. 50] interesting study, but this has not been undertaken except by Joseph Bédier, who does little more than suggest the problem and scoff at those who would seriously undertake its solution. [41]

In some other versions the helpful little folk are dwarfs, whom we shall meet again when we discuss the tale of Snow White (Type 709). The envious companion who is punished for attempting to imitate the hero's good luck (N471) appears in several other popular European stories (Types 461, 503, 613, 676).

[40] For a discussion of these literary forms, see Bolte-Polívka, III, 324, 328

[41] Les Fabliaux, p. 276.

Types:

461, 503, 613, 676, 709

Part Two

The Folktale from Ireland to India

II – The Complex Tale

4. Magic and marvels

A. Magic Powers

In a very large proportion of folktales wherever they may be found magic plays a considerable part, and it is almost universal in some form in all those stories we know as wonder tales. In an important group of these stories the possession of such powers and objects serves as the crucial point in the narrative.

A good example of such a tale is that known as The Lazy Boy (Type 675). Just as in the story of The Two Brothers (Type 303) , the hero catches a large fish, usually a salmon, and when he agrees to throw the salmon back into the water the latter gives him the power of making all his wishes come true. He has but to say, "By the word of the Salmon." Among his other accomplishments he makes a saw that cuts wood of itself and a self-moving boat or wagon. His arrival in the royal city in his strange conveyance and the sight of his marvelous saw at work causes the princess to laugh at him. In his anger, he wishes her pregnant. When in due time she has a child an inquiry is made as to who the unknown father may be and all the probable men are gathered together. The child picks the hero out as his father, and the parents [p. 68] are then joined in marriage. In his anger, the king has the hero and princess abandoned in a glass box in the sea or in a cask in the mountains. The hero still has his magic power, which he uses to make a great castle next to the king's. He then invites and humbles his father-in-law.

This is one of the few very well-known European tales which do not appear in the great collection of Grimm. It has been known, however, for a long time, since it is found in the Nights of Straparola in sixteenth century Italy and a hundred years later in the Pentamerone of Basile. It is disseminated rather evenly over the whole of Europe and extends eastward far into Siberia. It does not appear to be known in India or Africa, but two versions have been reported from Annam, and it has been carried to New Guinea and to America. The Cape Verde Island version told in Massachusetts is obviously from Portugal, and the Missouri French and the American Indian tales told by the Maliseets of New Brunswick and the Ojibwas of Michigan are clearly from France.

I am not a collector of folktales, but this happens to be one of the few which I have taken down in the field. The story in question is such a good example of the way in which a tale entering an alien culture may be changed that I cannot forbear making special mention of the story as told me by an Ojibwa Indian on Sugar Island, Michigan, in the summer of 1941. He had been telling us stories of the Ojibwa culture hero. Suddenly he asked, "Did you ever hear the tale about Rummy and his little Ford car?" He proceeded then to tell what is undoubtedly the present story, though confused with some other French tales. Rummy was clearly the hero of these French tales, René, and the little Ford car was Mr. Joseph's idea of the self-moving wagon. The automatic saw played its part, and the experience with the princess was exactly as we have outlined it above. From other tales he brought in the story of the magic tablecloth which produced food of itself and the tabu against looking backwards, which he repeated frequently but apparently did not understand or actually make use of in the story.

No one has investigated this tale systematically, but a casual listing of the versions country by country suggests the strong probability of origin in southern Europe and of the predominant influence of the literary treatments of the two famous Italian taletellers of the Renaissance.

If the literary origin of The Lazy Boy appears not to be certain, there can be no doubt that the story of Open Sesame (Type 676) has been learned by those who tell it either from a copy of the Arabian Nights itself or eventually, perhaps through many intermediaries, from the same source. It seems likely that this tale has entered the oral tradition of nearly every European country since the time of Galland's translation of the Thousand and One Nights into French at the beginning of the eighteenth century. Whether the versions current in central Africa have come more directly from the Arabic versions of the work has not been determined, but seems probable. [p. 69] The fact that the story is now an authentic part of the folklore of a good part of Europe, whatever its actual origin may have been, justifies its inclusion in the canon of oral folktales. It is known to almost everyone. The poor brother observes robbers entering a mountain and overhears the magic words "Open Sesame," which gives them admittance. He secures much gold from the mountain and takes it home. He borrows money scales from his rich brother and a piece of the money remains in the scale and thus betrays the secret. The rich brother tries to imitate, but forgets the formula for opening the mountain and is caught inside. Though the magic words vary as the tale passes from country to country, they always seem to be at least a reminiscence of the phrase "Open Sesame."

Another tale of magic powers which surely comes from the Orient, but this time from India, is that of The Magician and His Pupil (Type 325). The fact that it is well known in India and also throughout Europe has served to bring it to the attention of those folklorists interested in the problem of the Indian origin of the European folktales. In 1859 Theodor Benfey in the Prolegomena to his Pantschatantra uses this story as an illustration of the way in which tales from India are taken over into the Mongolian literature (in this case, as part of the collection of Kalmuck tales known as Siddhi-Kür) and carried through this intermediary into Europe. More than fifty years later his disciple, Emmanuel Cosquin, [61] while accepting the main thesis of Indic origin for European tales, made exception to the importance of the Mongols and uses the present tale as the foundation for his case. He shows clearly enough that the European tales are like the purely Indian ones and are considerably different from the Mongolian form.

The main fact that this tale is originally from India seems never to have been disputed, though it has become so well known in Europe that it must be ranked among the most popular of oral stories. It is told in the sixteenth century by Straparola. It appears in nearly all the collections of the Near East and of southern Siberia. Beyond India, where it has been frequently reported, it is told in the Dutch East Indies and in the Philippines. It is popular in North Africa, and has been brought to Missouri by the French and to Massachusetts by Portuguese-speaking Cape Verde Island Negroes.

The details of the story remain remarkably constant wherever it is told. A father sends his son to school to a magician. The father may have the son back if, at the end of one year, he can recognize the son in the animal form to which the magician will have transformed him. The boy learns magic secretly, and he escapes from the magician by means of a magic flight. He either transforms himself frequently, or else he casts behind him magic obstacles. [62] He thus returns to his father and helps his father make money by [p. 70] selling him as a dog, an ox, or a horse. At last he is sold as a horse to the magician. Contrary to his instructions, the father gives the bridle along with the horse and this brings the youth into the magician's power. The boy succeeds in stripping off the bridle and then he conquers the magician in a transformation combat. He changes to various animals and the magician likewise changes himself. The details of these changes vary somewhat. One of the most popular varieties of this motif is that in which the youth (or prince) has flown to a princess in the form of a bird and is hidden by her after he has transformed himself to a ring. As the princess throws the ring, a great number of grains of corn fall on the ground. When the magician as cock is about to eat the corn, the boy becomes a fox and bites off the cock's head.

In this tale, as in the two treated immediately before it, the magic powers are thought of as inherent in the hero. Much more common in folktales is the use of objects whose intrinsic magic power does not depend upon any special quality in the person who uses them.

[61] "Les Mongols et leur prétendu rôle dans la transmission des contes indiens vers l'Occident Europeen," Revue des traditions populaires, XXVII (1912)=Etudes folkforiques, pp. 497-612.

[62] This motif appears in many tales; cf. Motifs D671 and D672).

Types:

303, 325, 675, 676

Motifs

D671, D672

Number of Borrowing of European-Asiatic Tales by Indonesians, African, and American Indians

Type

Indonesianx

Africanx

Americanx

Indianx

1. The Theft of Fish

5

7

2. Tail-Fisher

3

13

4. Carrying the Sham-Sick Trickster

5

5. Biting the Foot

13

16

6. Inquiring about the Wind

2

7. Calling of Three Tree Names

1

8. The Painting

2

7

9A. The Unjust Partner: Bear Threshes

7

9B. The Unjust Partner: Corn and Chaff

2

15. Theft of Butter (Honey) by Playing Godfather

13

2

21. Eating His Own Entrails

1

1

30. Fox Tricks Wolf into Falling into a Pit

1

31. Fox Climbs from Pit on Wolf's Back

15

33. Fox Plays Dead and is Thrown out of Pit and Escape

20

5

36. Fox in Disguise Violates the She-Bear

1

37. Fox as Nursemaid for Bear

7

30

38. Claw in Split Tree

11

2

47A. Fox Hangs by Teeth to Horse's Tail

2

1

49. Bear and the Honey

2

50. Sick Lion

1

55. Animals Build a Road

18

1

56. Fox Steals Young Magpies

7

60. Fox and Crane

3

62. Peace Among Animals

1

72. Rabbit Rides Fox a-Courting

1

6

7

73. Blinding the Guard

2

2

100. Wolf as Dog's Guest Sings

1

101. Old Dog as Rescuer of Child

1

104. Cowardly Duelers

3

105. Cat's Only Trick

2

111. Cat and Mouse Converse

3

122A. Wolf Seeks Breakfast

2

122B. Cat Washes Face before Eating

5

123. Wolf and Kids

1

125. Wolf Flees from Wolf-Head

12

130. Animals in Night Quarters

1

154. "Bear-Food"

6

1

155. Ungrateful Serpent Returned to Captivity

12

156. Splinter in Bear's Paw

1

157. Learning to Fear Men

1

1

175. Tarbaby and Rabbit

2

39

23

210. Cock, Hen, etc. on Journey

10

221. Election of Bird King

2

222. War of Birds and Quadrupeds

4

225. Crane Teaches Fox to Fly

4

3

43?

228. Titmouse Tries to be Big as Bear

1

8

235. Jay Borrows Cuckoo's Skin

3

248. Dog and Sparrow

1

249. Ant and Cricket

3

275. Race of Fox and Crayfish

26

1

295. Bean, Straw, and Coal

3

300. Dragon-Slayer

1

14

301. Three Stolen Princesses

16

302. Ogre's Heart in Egg

2

1

303. Twins or Blood-Brothers

3

3

307. Princess in the Shroud

2

311. Rescue by Sister (Girls in Sacks)

5

1

313. Girl as Helper in Hero's Flight

2

33

314. Youth Transformed to Horse (Goldener)

24

4

15

325. Magician and Pupil

1

326. Learning What Fear Is

2

327A. Hansel and Gretel

6

8

10

327B. Dwarf and Giant

3

327C. Devil Carries Hero in Sack

9

6?

328. Boy Steals Giant's Treasure

6

331. Spirit in Bottle

1

333. Red Ridinghood; Six Little Goats

16

400. Quest for Lost Wife

37

11

29

401. Princess Transformed into Deer

1

402. Mouse (Cat, etc.) as Bride

1

403. Black and White Bride

1

15

6

408. Three Oranges

1

425. Search for Lost Husband (Cupid and Psyche)

5

5

1

432. Prince as Bird

1

450. Little Brother and Little Sister

3

451. Maiden Who Seeks her Brothers

1

461. Three Hairs from Devil's Beard

17

1

1

471. Bridge to Other World

1

1

1

480. Spinning Woman by the Spring

6

3

506. Rescued Princess: Grateful Dead

6

1

507. Monster's Bride: Grateful Dead

1

510A. Cinderella

2

3

4

510B. Cap o' Rushes

2

1

511. One-Eye, Two-Eyes, Three-Eyes

3

513. The Helpers (Extraordinary Companions)

2

3

514. Shift of Sex

1

516. Faithful John

1

518. Devils Fight over Magic Objects

2

531. Clever Horse

3

2

533. Speaking Horse-head

6

545. Cat as Helper (Puss in Boots)

2

10

550. Bird, Horse, and Princess

4

4

551. Sons on Quest for Remedy

4

552A. Three Animal Brothers-in-Law

1

554. Grateful Animals

11

555. Fisher and His Wife

5

559. Dungbeetle

1

4

560. Magic Ring

36

8

2

561. Aladdin

1

2

563. Table, Ass, and Stick

7

14

4

566. Three Magic Objects and Wonderful Fruits

2

1

567. Magic Bird-heart

13

1

1

569. Knapsack, Hat, and Horn

5

5

570. Rabbit-herd

1

1

571. "All Stick Together"

1

590. Prince and Arm Bands

1

592. Jew Among Thorns

1

612. Three Snake-Leaves

2

613. Two Travelers

5

1

621. Louse-Skin

3

650. Strong John

27

3

4

653. Four Skillful Brothers

8

12

655. Wise Brothers

1

2

670. Animal Languages

6

23

671. Three Languages

2

675. Lazy Boy

2

676. Open Sesame

1

9

700. Tom Thumb

5

1

706. Maiden Without Hands

6

2

707. Three Golden Sons

8

1

709. Snow White

6

750. The Wishes: Hospitality Rewarded

1

1

3

780. Singing Bone

8

781. Princess Who Murdered her Child

12

785. Who Ate the Lamb's Heart?

1

851. Princess who Cannot Solve Riddle

3

2

852. Princess Forced to Say, "That is a Lie."

1

2

853. Princess Caught with her own Words

2

854. Golden Ram

1

875. Clever Peasant Girl

3

3

882. Wager on Wife's Chastity

2

900. King Thrushbeard

1?

901. Taming of the Shrew

1

910. The Good Precepts

2

921. King and Peasant's Son

1

2

922. King and Abbot

1

923. Love Like Salt

1

930. Prophecy for Poor Boy

1

1

931. Oedipus

1

935. Prodigal's Return

1

945. Luck and Intelligence

8

1

950. Rhampsinitus

1

1000. Anger Bargain

5

2

1004. Hogs in Mud, Sheep in Air

2

3

4

1012. Cleaning the Child

1

1015. Whetting the Knife

2

1030. Crop Division

1

1031. Roof as Threshing Flail

2

1060. Squeezing the Stone

1

1

1

1061. Biting the Stone

1

1

1062. Throwing the Stone

1

1

1063. Throwing Contest with Golden Club

1

1074. Race with Relatives in Line

6

38

12

1085. Pushing Hole in a Tree

1

1088. Eating Contest: Food in Bag

20

1115. Attempted Murder with Hatchet

10

1119. Ogre Kills Own Children: Substitutes in Bed

14

5

1149. Children Desire Ogre's Flesh

10

4

1157. Gun as Tobacco Pipe

1

1200. Sowing of Salt

1

1250. Bringing Water from Well: Human Chain

1

2

1260. Porridge in Ice Hole

1

1276. Rowing without Going Forward

4

1278. Bell Falls into Sea: Mark on Boat

2

1310. Crayfish as Tailor: Drowned

18

22

31

1319. Pumpkin as Ass's Egg, Rabbit as Colt

1

1350. Loving Wife: Man Feigns Death

1?

1360C. Old Hildebrand

1

1380. Faithless Wife: Husband Feigns Blindness

1

1384. Quest for Person Stupid as Wife

2

1386. Meat as Food for Cabbage

7

1415. Lucky Hans

2

1

1430. Man and Wife Build Air Castles

7

1

1525. Master Thief

2

6

1528. Holding Down the Hat

2

1

1530. Holding up the Rock

11

3

1535. Rich and Poor Peasant

10

16

11

1537. Corpse Killed Five Times

3

2

1539. Cleverness and Gullibility

7

3

1540. Student from Paradise (Paris)

3

1541. For the Long Winter

2

1542. The Clever Boy: Fooling-Sticks

8

1563. "Both?"

3

1585. Lawyer's Mad Client

1

1590. Trespasser's Defense

1

1610. To Divide Presents and Strokes

2

1611. Contest in Climbing Mast

1

1612. Contest in Swimming

1

1640. Brave Tailor

3

4

1641. Doctor Know-All

21

3

1642. The Good Bargain: Money to Frogs

4

1651. Whittington's Cat

2

2

1653. Robbers under Tree

2

1

5

1655. Eaten Grain and Cock as Damages

10

1

1685. Foolish Bridegroom

6

1

1696. "What Should I Have Said?"

6

4

2

1698A. Search for Lost Animal: Deaf Person

1

1698B. Travelers Ask the Way: Deaf Peasant

1

1730. Three Suitors Visit Chaste Wife

2

3

1737. Parson in Sack to Heaven

1

1775. Hungry Parson

3

1920A. Lying Contest: "Sea Burns"

1

1930. Schlaraffenland

3

2028. Troll (Wolf) Cut Open

1

2030. Old Woman and Pig

2

4

2031. Frost-bitten Foot

4

3

2033. Nut Hits Cock's Head

3

2034C. Lending and Repaying, Progressive Bargains

22

2035. House that Jack Built

4

2400. Ground Measured with Horse's Skin

1

Types:

1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9A, 9B, 15, 21, 30, 31, 33, 36, 37, 38, 47A, 49, 50, 55, 56, 60, 62, 72, 73, 100, 101, 104, 105, 111, 122A, 122B, 123, 125, 130, 154, 155, 156, 157, 175, 210. 221, 222, 225, 228, 235, 248, 249, 275, 295, 300, 301, 302, 303, 307, 311, 313, 314, 325, 326, 327A, 327B, 327C, 328, 331, 333, 400, 401, 402, 403, 408, 425, 432, 450, 451, 461, 471, 480, 506, 507, 510A, 510B, 511, 513, 514, 516, 518, 531, 533, 545, 550, 551, 552A, 554, 555, 559, 560, 561, 563, 566, 567, 569, 570, 571, 590, 592, 612, 613, 621, 650, 653, 655, 670, 671, 675, 676, 700, 706, 707, 709, 750, 780, 781, 785, 851, 852, 853. 854. 875, 882, 900, 901, 910, 921, 922, 923, 930, 931, 935, 945, 950, 1000, 1004, 1012, 1015, 1030, 1031, 1060, 1061, 1062, 1063, 1074, 1085, 1088, 1115, 1119, 1149, 1157, 1200, 1250, 1260, 1276, 1278, 1310, 1319, 1350, 1360C, 1380, 1384, 1386, 1415, 1430, 1525, 1528, 1530, 1535, 1537, 1539, 1540, 1541, 1542, 1563, 1585, 1590, 1610, 1611, 1612, 1640, 1641, 1642, 1651, 1653, 1655, 1685, 1696, 1698A, 1698B, 1730, 1737, 1775, 1920A, 1930, 2028, 2030, 2031, 2033, 2034C, 2035, 2400